TRAINING MANUAL
23rd TACTICAL AIR SUPPORT SQUADRON
NO. 1
NIGHT-TRAINING-MANUAL
INDEX
SECTION
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
3
STARLIGHT
SCOPE
4
ROLE
OF THE PILOT
8
ROLE
OF THE SCOPE OPERATOR
10
METHODS
OF NIGHT RECONNAISSANCE
12
METHODS
OF CONDUCTING STRIKES
18
CONTROL
OF MORE THAN ONE STRIKE AIRCRAFT
26
FAC
ORDNANCE
29
STRIKE
AIRCRAFT ORDNANCE
35
SUMMARY
41
INTRODUCTION
In a battle situation in which friendly
air power controls the sky, the enemy is forced to alter many of the tactics in
his over-all battle plan. One change in tactics recently noted is the movement
of enemy supplies and troops almost exclusively at night. Since almost all o£
his day time re-supply efforts had been halted, the enemy has been forced to
push his supplies through during the hours of darkness. To counter this move,
special equipment was procured, special training given to aircrews and the USAF
Night Forward Air Controller job was instituted. Their mission:
"Seek
Out and Destroy Enemy Supplies Being Moved Under the Cover of Darkness"
This then is your mission as the Night
Forward Air Control Team.
The purpose of this manual is to give you
some insight into the magnitude and complexity of the job and to provide you
with a foundation to learn this new and extremely vital job.
STARLIGHT
SCOPE
INTRODUCTION
The starlight scope is used by night FACs
to enable them to see under conditions of minimum illumination. The scope
provides low image size magnification (3-4 power) and high image light
amplification (40,000). As its name implies, the starlight scope allows its user
to observe objects illuminated by light intensities as low as that of starlight.
PHYSICAL
DESCRIPTION
There
are two scope models now in use; one made by Electro-Optical systems, Inc (EOS);
the other by Varo Inc. The EOS scope has higher image magnification, smaller
field of vision, has a reticle (for use as a gun sight), and uses a lens in the
objective system. The Varo scope has a fixed reticle (or none at all), uses a
mirror in the objective system, and is about one inch shorter
(13" vs 14" for EOS). Both weigh about 6 lbs.
STARLIGHT
SCOPE CONSTRUCTION
Although the two scopes differ somewhat in
the front end, aft of the reticle they are identical. A 6.5V battery powers a
solid state, 15,000 Volt oscillator/rectifier. The heart of the SLS is the image
intensifier tube consisting of three photo multiplier tubes connected front to
back with fiber optics. The image intensifier tube is capable of amplifying
very- low intensity light up to 40, 000 times.
FIGURE #1 - EOS SCOPE
1.
Objective Lens
6.
2.
Objective Focus Knob Lock
7.
Eye
Piece Focus Ring
3.
Objective
Focus Knob
8. Eye Piece
4.
Reticle Adjust Knobs
9.
Rifle
Mount or Hand Grip
5.
On-Off
Switch
FIGURE
#2 VARO SCOPE
1.
Objective Lens
5. Eye
Piece Focus Ring
2.
Objective Focus Ring
b. Eye
Piece
3.
On-Off Switch
7. Hand Grip Attachment Point
4.
Light is focused on the photo-electric
screen by the objective lens. The screen gives off electrons at each point in
proportion to the intensity of light. striking the point. The electrons
"fall" through 15 KV and "splash" into the phosphore on the
electro-luminescent screen. Light from each stage is carried by parallel glass
fibers to the photo screen of the next state. Operation of an individual section
is similar to the image converter tubes used in the WW II sniper scope. The
difference is that
instead of converting. infra-red light to visual, the starlight scope
intensifies visual light. The amplification of each stage is close to 35 times;
three stages in cascade gives an amplification factor of approximately 40,000
times. The image appearing on the electroluminescent screen is magnified and
viewed through the eye piece.
OPERATION
OF SCOPE
I.
Preflight. When you pick up
the scope at PE, check the lens for dirt or finger prints. Put a lens cap on the
objective (figure #1 item 1) or stand the scope on the table. Turn the switch on
and observe the green glow in the eye piece. Adjust the eye piece focus ring
(figure #1, item 7) so the reticle is in focus. On the Varo scope focus on the
grain in the viewing screen. Once the eye piece is adjusted for your eye it
should not need further adjusting. Turn the scope off, uncover the objective,
and the automatic cut-off feature will blackout the scope when the excessive
amount of light enters the objective. If it is dark outside and stars are
visible turn the scope "on" and focus the objective lens on a star.
Adjust for the smallest dot on the screen. This will focus the scope at
infinity, which is close to the setting used at 5000' AGL.
IMPORTANT:
When adjusting the focus on the EOS scope, be sure that the locking knob is
unlocked.
II. Airborne Operations. When the aircraft
has reached cruise altitude, turn the scope "on" and look for a small
fire or light on the ground. The best light is one too small to be seen
visually. Readjust the focus so that the light is a pin point in the scope. This
should be the final focus adjustment.
IMPORTANT: Any
time the scope is out the window while airborne it should be secured to the
aircraft in some way.
In the VR (visual reconnaissance) area the
scope operator should look for surface features which provide significant
contrast to the surrounding terrain. Roads and rivers are best. Bombed out areas
and B-52 strike paths can also be used. Hills, valleys, dark fields are
difficult to see and should not be counted on for navigation. Truck headlights
show up as a fan shaped area with the truck at the point of the fan.
Very bright fires or lights will leave
temporary streaks across the scope tube. Napalm or fire bomb fires will usually
over load the scope and cause automatic cut-off. As soon as you point the scope
away from the excessive light source, it will come back on.
A common problem is the scope slowly
fading out and going black. This is caused by the on-off switch being off or
battery failure. Sometimes the scope will get fuzzy and full of ghost images.
When this happens either turn it off for a minute or put it against a light in
the cockpit. These too techniques will remove latent images from the
electroluminescent screen which will sharpen the images you are viewing.
CONCLUSION
The SLS enables you to observe the enemies
activity during the hours of darkness and your success during night operations
is dependent on this piece of equipment. Obviously, the more proficient you are
with the SLS, the more effective and successful you will be as a scope operator.
This, in conjunction with your proficiency in applying the tactics to be
discussed later, will determine your overall effectiveness in accomplishing the
mission of the Night Forward Air Control Team.
ROLE
OF THE PILOT
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to define
the relationship between the pilot and the scope operator. Even though the pilot
is removed somewhat from the control of the battle situation, he is the man
responsible for the safety of his aircraft-, the fighters, and the overall
conduct of the mission. The night FAC operation requires close coordination
between the scope operator (SO) and the pilot. This coordination is a necessity
for successful mission accomplishment
THE
PILOT
The pilot is involved in many facets of
the night mission. To acquaint you with his responsibilities we will discuss the
mission aspects before getting "on station" and after arriving
"on station".
a.
Before getting "on station".
(1)
At night, a complete, thorough preflight is extremely vital. Once into the night
combat environment, you cannot afford a sick airplane. Be very particular of the
condition of your aircraft.
(2)
During the pre-flight, make sure your ordnance is set correctly for the
conditions you expect in the target area. Check the gunsight reticle for proper
operation.
(3)
After airborne, check the gunsight for the correct setting and set the armament
switches.
(4)
In hostile territory, make sure the navigation lights and rotating beacon are
off and the cockpit lights dimmed down. Use shielded flashlights and shield your
cigarette lighter when lighting up a smoke.
(5)
Orient the aircraft in the general target vicinity by use of TACAN, VOR
GCI, DR, etc.
b.
On Station.
(1)
Once the scoper starts orienting himself and positioning the aircraft, follow
his directions explicitly so that he can count on the aircraft being on the
headings and altitude called for. If needed, the pilot should call out aircraft
headings every 45 degrees.
(2)
Once the scoper decides to drop ordnance, make your final settings on the
armament switches and be ready to release when the scoper calls
"drop".
(3)
When the scoper calls for strike ordnance, the pilot should contact the
appropriate control agency and request this ordnance. When the strike aircraft
check in, the pilot will generally give the initial target area briefing. The
pilot should also handle the task of getting rendezvoused with the aircraft.
(4)
If you have several strike aircraft to use, the pilot will generally
assist in controlling them.
(5)
As the strike commences, record the call signs and the on and off times of the
strike aircraft. Record the ground fire encountered and assist the scoper in
pinpointing the gun positions.
(6)
During the excitement of conducting a strike, dodging ground fire, etc, don't
forget fuel management of your aircraft and the strike aircraft. It is
startling, to say the least, to have an engine start dying during the heat of
battle. In addition, keep an eye on the engine instruments as they will often
warn you of impending engine failure.
(7)
Once the scoper starts conducting a strike, he will generally turn down the
volume on his other radios to prevent interference on the strike frequency. At this time, the
pilot should monitor and handle the other radios.
(8)
Keep informed of weather conditions at the recovery base.
(9)
Last, but not least, be smooth with your aircraft control. Abrupt, rapid, and
uncoordinated control movements are a sure fire way to make your scoper feel bad
and possibly get sick.
CONCLUSION
Once you get on station you must assume a
secondary but vital roll in the FAC operation. You must keep the scoper in
position to effectively monitor the road or target. In
addition, be ready to assist him in any way to enable him to operate more
effectively. The pilot is the man responsible for the successful accomplishment
of the mission which requires that you demand effective coordination in all
aspects affecting your mission.
ROLE
OF THE SCOPE OPERATOR
INTRODUCTION
In night operations, it is the scope
operator (scoper) who will make or break the mission. In his hands lie the
primary responsibilities of getting the aircraft oriented on the roads, finding
trucks and other targets, and providing the information and directions that will
enable strike aircraft to place ordnance on these targets. Therefore, it is
absolutely essential that the, scoper be a "take charge" man and
maintain positive control of the overall operations in his sector of operations.
THE
SCOPE OPERATOR
Since
you are operating during the hours of darkness, it is obvious that the scoper is
the eyes of the pilot. For him to keep the aircraft oriented over a road or
target, the pilot must rely entirely on directions and instructions from the
scoper. During the course of the mission, the scope operator will have other
duties and responsibilities and some of these are discussed below.
a.
As previously mentioned, the scoper must be able to determine the aircrafts
position and then establish it over the road or target.
b.
The scoper must give continuous instructions to keep the aircraft positioned
correctly.
c.
Keep the pilot informed and up to date on the following:
(1)
Aircraft position.
(2)
Trucks sighted and their approximate position and direction of movement.
(3)
Keep the pilot informed of peculiar terrain or road features in case a marking
rocket is required.
d.
Brief the strike aircraft on target description and how you want the strike
conducted. At this time you become not only the on-scene battle commander, but
also an airborne air traffic controller.
e.
Keep strike aircraft informed on active gun positions.
f.
Provide strike aircraft quick, accurate corrections on ordnance delivery.
g.
Once the strikes have terminated, provide the strike aircraft with Bomb Damage
Assessment (BDA).
These are some of the more important
aspects of being a scoper and all these areas will be discussed in detail in
later chapters.
CONCLUSION
Although
you are not the Aircraft Commander, you will directly determine the success or
failure of the night mission. You must be able to keep the aircraft oriented
properly while performing scope reconnaissance, directing strikes, and
controlling the over-all conduct of the night operations in your area. To be
effective you must be prepared and willing to "take charge" and
perform as the on-scene commander of that particular area of operations.
METHODS OF NIGHT RECONNAISSANCE
METHODS
OF VR
INTRODUCTION: Since our mission is to "Seek out and
destroy enemy supplies .....," a discussion on
how to "seek out" is
certainly in order. But first, what is it that we are looking for? How
is the enemy moving his supplies? The answer to both questions is simply trucks.
Trucks handle by far, a greater percentage of the supplies moved than any other
method the enemy uses. Therefore, this is where the bulk of the night FAC’s
effort is directed, and where the emphasis will be placed in this manual.
ORIENTATION
The first problem the scoper is faced with once he
gets to the area of operations, is to find the road (or target) and determine
his exact location. This is very important in light of possible errors in
navigational equipment.
The key to being able to rapidly and accurately determined your position
will be how well you know the geographical. characteristics and road
network of the area. In general, roads and rivers can almost always be seen and
are extremely useful in accurately determining your position. On nights that you
have a lot of moon light, you will be able to see other features such as
cultivated areas, mountains, heavily wooded areas, villages, etc. However, since
moon phase and cloud cover may deprive you of this extra light, you should know
the river and road structure to the fullest extent possible because other
terrain features may not be visible. Listed below are a few examples of the
characteristics you should look for (Refer to figure #7):
a. Road and river headings.
b. Unusual or obvious bends in
the road or river (c,d,u,w,x).
c. Road intersections (a,b,f).
d. River intersections (v).
e.
Islands in the river (y).
f.
Spur roads or by-pass roads (f).
g.
River-road crossings (e).
Of course, do not forget about using TACAN,
VOR, ADF, GCI, etc, that are available
to assist you in getting oriented on the road or target.
STAYING ORIENTED
Once oriented on a road or target, the
next problem is staying oriented. There will be many times, on dark nights, that for
one reason or another, you will loose the road or target area and will have to
reorient yourself. Listed below are a few techniques that will help you in doing
this:
a.
When initially oriented over a known point, drop a ground flare which you can
return to in the event you loose the road. The ground flares burn for over 40
minutes and can be seen for many miles if in the open. If dropped in trees they
can usually be seen on the. scope. This technique saves a lot of
reorientation time on dark nights, for when you loose the road you simply return
to the ground mark and start over.
b.
Frequently, there will be fires burning on the ground (old strikes, camp fires,
etc) which you can use in keeping oriented.
c.
Once initially oriented over a known check point, note the exact TACAN bearing
and DME and use this reading to return to that point to reorient yourself.
d.
GCI is also available to assist you in positioning yourself.
SCOPER CONTROL OF THE FAC AIRCRAFT
The
effectiveness of the scope operator is tied directly to his, ability to keep the
aircraft in a position to effectively monitor the road. Generally, the pilot is
not able to see enough visually to keep the aircraft positioned correctly.
Consequently, the scoper must give what ever instructions are required to enable
the pilot to position the aircraft. Listed below are some techniques that will
assist the scoper in controlling the aircraft:
a.
Prebrief the pilot that when you call for a "right turn", to give you
a certain angle of bank; say 20 degrees. During flight all you will have to say
is "right turn"; as you approach the heading you want, command
"roll out".
This is all that is required and these instructions are concise and
straight forward. If you require any other magnitude of turn, then tell him
right turn, 30 degrees of bank; 45 degrees of turn to the left; etc.
b.
When you are first learning the area, or during orientation, have the pilot call
out cardinal headings. Obviously, anytime this information is needed, have the
pilot provide this information.
c.
Unless you are thoroughly familiar with the road network, it is better, if the
road is going to the left under you, to go into an immediate right turn and keep
the road in sight until you can position the aircraft correctly. In left turns
you will be unable to see the road and may
become disoriented. Along the same
line, if you need to put your head in
the cockpit
to check a map,
light a cigarette, etc, have the pilot go into a right turn and hold the turn
until you get back on the scope.
d.
On very dark nights you will have to fly very close to the road to see it. On
moonlit nights it is better to maneuver farther away. Flying farther from the
road has many advantages
(1)
Changes in road heading are easily compensated for.
(2)
Trucks are not warned of your presence.
(3)
You are able to see a greater stretch of road.
(4)
It is easier to determine a location to strike the trucks.
e.
If you are flying in an area of known antiaircraft gun positions, there are
several points to consider in conducting your flight:
(1)
Don't fly too low. At night you have a chance of ducking 37mm fire if you are
above 5,000 feet AGL.
(2)
With a very bright moon, hold on the side of the road opposite the moon so that
you don't place yourself between the moon and the guns.
f.
Listed below are some considerations and techniques concerning VR techniques:
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(1)
When performing reconnaissance with plenty of light, you can generally parallel
the road and keep everything in sight. Figure #8 depicts the placement of the
aircraft along a road.
(2)
If the night is very dark with little moon illumination, you must stay very
close to the road. A spiral type pattern may be used as depicted in figure #9.
On these dark nights, a ground flare can be
utilized to mark some significant point. If you lose the road, all you have to
do is return to the ground mark and start over.
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(3)
Once you pick up trucks, stay away from them if possible to prevent alerting
them of your presence.
(4)
Once you locate trucks, stay alert for them stopping, pulling off the road,
turning off on side roads, etc, as this information will be of great value to
intelligence in locating truck parks, refueling stops, etc.
(5)
A very important point: As you are tracking trucks down the road, keep in mind all
unusual bends in the road, river bends in very
close proximity to the road, etc. This will enable you to pinpoint
the trucks position to strike aircraft. If the trucks are not near a
prominent terrain feature and the strike aircraft have enough fuel to loiter,
continue to track the trucks to some
easily identified ground point and strike them there. DON'T BE IN A HURRY to hit
the trucks when you find them. Wait until you can get as many factors on your
side as possible. By utilizing readily apparent ground features, you will he
able to describe the trucks position more accurately for the strike aircraft
which will result in more effective ordnance delivery.
(6)
During VR, the scoper should keep the pilot well informed as to position of the
aircraft, location of trucks, readily identifiable road or terrain features near
the road, and any other information which will keep him up to date on
the situation.
The better informed the FAC pilot is, the more accurate the WP mark
will be when it is required.
g.
If you have flares or ground marks remaining at the completion of a
mission, it is a very desirable to use this ordnance to
help the FAC replacing you in getting oriented.
h.
When the new FOC arrives in the area, you can give him much up-to-date
information which will enable him to be more effective. Listed below are items
which will increase his effectiveness:
(1)
General truck situation and direction of movement.
(2)
Routes and by-pass roads the trucks are using.
(3)
Location of antiaircraft gun emplacement.
(4)
Weather.
(5)
Actual wind direction and speed.
(6)
Location of road cuts and destroyed
trucks. These are areas where truck movement will be slowed down or stopped and
is the
ideal location for conducting subsequent strikes.
CONCLUSION
The
proceeding discussion will give you some ideas and insight into the night
reconnaissance job. However, remember that these are suggestions and a point of
departure in developing your own techniques. In general, the better you know the
geographical features of the area and, if you are patient and will plan ahead,
your effectiveness as a night FAC will be greatly enhanced.
METHODS OF CONDUCTING STRIKES
INTRODUCTION
After the night FAC has found trucks or
other targets, he is then ready to fulfill the second part of his mission which
is "to destroy" the enemy efforts in moving supplies. Again, the
information presented in this chapter is intended to give you basis ideas of how
to conduct night air strikes and a departure point in developing your own
techniques.
CONDUCTING STRIKES
After a target has been identified or you
have trucks under surveillance, call the appropriate controlling agency and
request strike aircraft. At the same time you request ordnance, inform the
controlling agency where you want the strike aircraft to rendezvous. Generally,
a TACAN fix is the most expeditious means of getting the strike aircraft into
the general target area. Once the strike aircraft get to the rendezvous point,
then you must get them in visual contact with the FAC or exact target location,
i.e. ground fires, logs, previous strike fires, etc.
a.
RENDEZVOUS: Listed below are a few
techniques that have proven effective in getting the strike aircraft over the
exact target location.
(1)
Once the strike aircraft enters the general area, the FAC can turn on the
navigation lights and rotating beacon (this is referred to as going
"Christmas tree:). The strike aircraft can generally spot the
lights and position himself directly over the FAC. One caution here. Don't use
an excessive amount of bank in turns with these lights on. These lights are
shielded and if you restrict your bank to 20 degrees or less you will not
compromise your exact position to the guns.
(2)
If you have ground marks (logs) out, the strike aircraft may be able to see
them. To confirm he is looking at the right mark, fly directly over the mark with your
navigation lights on and in this manner he can confirm
the correct position of the mark. If you
decide to conduct the strike with reference to a ground mark, make sure that the
strike aircraft are looking at the correct mark especially if there are other
fires burning in the
general target area.
(3)
Frequently, incoming strike aircraft can orient themselves with relation to
fires on the ground started by previous strikes. This is ideal because these
fires will generally be right in the target area and only small corrections will
be
necessary on subsequent strikes. The same caution holds here; make sure
the strike aircraft are looking at the correct ground fires.
(4)
If the aforementioned techniques do not work, then, as a last resort, drop a
flare over the target or in the general vicinity. This works very well but it
also alerts the gun positions and truck drivers to the area that will be
struck.
b.
PRE-STRIKE BRIEFING: After you make
radio contact with the strike aircraft, you can give the initial target
briefing. This briefing should be brief and concise, but provide the strike
aircraft with the information needed to place ordnance'on that particular
target. Below is listed the information generally passed to strike aircraft;
(1)
Initial Target Information:
(a)
Target weather conditions.
(b)
Altimeter setting.
(c)
Wind velocity.
(d)
Target elevation.
(e)
Highest terrain in the vicinity of the target.
(f)
Enemy defenses.
(g)
Direction/distance of best bail out area.
(h)
Position of friendly forces if applicable.
(i)
Other strike aircraft being employed.
(2)
Strike Information:
(a)
Target description - number of trucks, direction of movement, truck spacing,
road heading, prominent terrain or road features, etc.
(b)
Run-in heading.
(c)
Orbit.
(d)
Ordnance sequence.
(e)
FAC position and altitude.
Discussion: A discussion of (2)(b),
(2)(c), and (2)(e) is essential in the light that it will affect several of the
other factors you will brief the strike pilot.
a.
First, in determining the run-in heading of the strike aircraft, consider the
following:
(1)
In general, a run-in heading parallel to the road is preferred because it
exposes a greater amount of road to compensate for bombing errors.
(2) The run in heading should not carry the strike aircraft near
hazardous terrain, especially mountains, if it can be avoided. If necessary,
make sure that the strike pilot understands the position of the hazard, height
and distance from the target.
(3)
If enemy antiaircraft gun positions are known, select a heading that will
minimize the strike aircrafts exposure to this ground fire. Inform the strike
pilot of the gun locations.
b.
Orbit: After the strike aircraft has
pulled off the target, they generally utilize a rectangular pattern to set
themselves up for their next pass. The pattern will often be reversed during a
strike to provide a reciprocal run in heading. Figure #10 depicts a typical
pattern. If possible, have the strike aircraft orbit in the direction that will
place them near a safe bailout area. They will receive most of the ground fire
during the run in and during the pull off. A successful pickup is more probable
if they can bail out over a safe area.
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c.
FAC position and altitude. Generally,
the FAC will hold on the side of the target opposite the orbit of the strike
aircraft. Make sure that the strike aircraft thoroughly understand your holding
location and altitude. Secondly, make sure you stay where you say you will be.
Many times you will become so engrossed in running the strike that you may
wander into the way of the strike aircraft. Mid-air collisions are a very serious
threat in the night environment, and all aircraft involved in the strike must
stay in their assigned areas. These then, are some of the factors you should
consider when preparing to brief the strike aircraft. Be concise in your
instructions and above all don't rush the briefing. Give the strike pilot one or
two bits of information and let him acknowledge it
and have time to write it down. Then give him another little bit of information and
let him assimilate it. Above all, make sure that he understands everything that
is going on and what is expected of him. In addition, don't restrict yourself to
these items of briefing if there are other factors you feel he should know. As
an example, when working more than one strike aircraft, advise each one as to
orbit, altitudes, and location of the other aircraft.
d.
STRIKE TECHNIQUES: The techniques
discussed here will point out some of the basic principles which have been
successful in the past in getting ordnance on a target as accurately as
possible. Once a strike commences, the effectiveness of the ordnance will be
directly proportional to the FAC's ability to pin-point the target for the
strike aircraft. There are two basic techniques utilized by the night FAC in
pin-pointing the target for the strike aircraft; flares and ground marks (logs).
A discussion of each follows:
(1)
Use of flares. If you decide to
utilize flares to illuminate the target, remember that a large area will be
illuminated and further instructions will be necessary to pin-point the
exact target location. When you drop a flare, drop it upwind of the target at a
point that will allow it to be directly over the target after about one-half of
its burn time. If you place a flare directly on the target, the wind will blow
it away from the target, reducing target illumination as it drifts away from the
target. Once the flare has illuminated, you must be ready to get the strike
pilot’s eyes directed on the target as soon as possible. Here are two good
ways of doing this.
(a)
White Phosphorous (WP) rocket mark.
Once the flare illuminates, have the aircraft in a position that will enable the
scoper to point out and describe the target location to the FAC pilot. From
there, roll in and mark with the WP. Have the FAC pilot put the aircraft back in
position for the scoper to see the target and give the strike pilot corrections
from the smoke. This is a very effective technique if the marking process
doesn’t take too long and valuable time wasted. This technique should be used
if the trucks are outside the illumination circle, in a foliated area, on a
hard-to-describe section of road, or if the strike aircraft just can't see the
area being described.
(b) Ground References. This is very effective if the target area is in
close proximity to some readily apparent geographical feature or bend in the
road. (refer to figure #7 items A,B,C,D,Y,Z) Once the flare illuminates, get the
strike pilot’s eyes on the particular ground reference point and then
give him corrections from it. This technique is very effective in tracking
trucks to severe bends in the road, river crossings, etc, and hitting them when
they get to these easy to see points where they are slowed down and cannot
maneuver effectively. Flaring trucks over straight stretches of road may
decrease your chances of getting ordnance on them because they will speed up
under the increased illumination (which makes them harder to hit) and be out of
the flare light by the time the strike aircraft can roll in. If your strike
aircraft cannot hit them in this short period of time you will probably lose
them and have to flare again.
(2)
Use of Ground Burning Flares (logs).
The use of logs is also a very effective method of pin-pointing target location
for strike
aircraft. Obviously, the closer the log is to the target the more effective it
will be. In placing logs on the ground, you must know the area well enough to
prevent placing it in heavy jungle. If there is too much foliage over the log,
the strike pilots may not be able to see it. Since the log takes several minutes
to ignite and become easily visible, plan on dropping them well in advance of
moving trucks. Once you get a log burning on the ground, direct the strike
pilot’s eyes to it and let him know where it lies with relation to the road.
Next, go back and pick up the trucks and start tracking them up to the log, all
the while, keeping the strike pilot informed of the position of the trucks with
relation to the leg. This relationship is most effective if given in term of
time rather than distance. The strike pilot knows how long it takes him to reach
the target from different points in his pattern and will be able to get set up
to hit the trucks when they are closest to the log. As the trucks approach the
log, make sure that you are holding clear of the strike pattern. Continue to
give the strike aircraft information on the trucks position However,
once he is cleared in, keep your instructions very concise. When
the ordnance goes off, be in position to observe its impact and give the
strike pilot the necessary corrections for subsequent passes. One variation of
the above procedure is to utilize two logs on the ground, one on each side of
the road. The advantage of this technique is to locate the road precisely between. the logs. In addition,
you have a common yardstick for measuring distances. At night it is almost
impossible to estimate 50 meters, 100 meters, 1000 meters, etc. However, with
two logs on the ground all you have to say is "Hit north of the eastern
mark, two times the distance between
the logs". This method is easily
understood by the strike pilot and can be a tremendous asset to you in
pin-pointing target location.
(3)
Of course, there are many variations of the above techniques which
are equally as effective. The target environment will determine how you will
operate but the above techniques will give you a starting point in
developing
your own techniques.
(4)
Striking. Once the target is pin-pointed for the strike aircraft,
you are ready to put ordnance on the target. Below are some points that will make
things
run smoother during the strike;
(a)
Before
you clear the strike aircraft in on the target, make sure you have your aircraft
positioned in the pre-briefed area and altitude.
(b)
Once the strike aircraft is cleared in, do not talk to him more than necessary.
(c)
The
FAC pilot should keep the airplane close enough to the target to allow the scoper to accurately
appraise the ordnance delivery and give corrections. There
is a tendency
to displace too far from the target which decreases the scope's effectiveness and
requires considerable time to
get. into position for additional flares or a re-mark with a
WP rocket.
(d)
During the strike the FAC pilot should handle all other radio equipment and
allow the scoper to devote his
attention to the strike
frequency.
(e)
During the strike the scoper should give clear, simple, understandable
corrections to the strike pilots. Also, advise them on gunfire they are
receiving and the position of the guns.
(f) If you decide to take a closer look at the target, make sure to
instruct the strike aircraft to hold "high and dry" and receive an
acknowledgement.
(g)
If you run out of flares and still have a requirement for them, request a
flareship from ABCCC to assist you. If a flareship is free, they will generally
be glad to assist. When he arrives in the area, he must be briefed and
controlled by the same techniques discussed in the next chapter.
e.
Bomb Damage Assessment (BDA). After
the strike is concluded, you should report BDA to the strike aircraft. The BDA
Includes:
(1)
Coordinates - Give coordinates in the
coordinate system being utilized in your area.
(2)
Time on and off target - This is
supplied by the FAC pilot.
(3)
Results - Trucks destroyed or
damaged, gun positions destroyed or silenced, secondary explosions or fires,
road cuts, land slides, etc.
(4)
Accuracy of ordnance delivery -
report here the percentage of ordnance in the target area and the percentage of
the target coverage. as an example; 100%/80% means that 100% of the ordnance was
in the target area and 80% of the target was covered.
(5)
Gunfire received - report the type of
gunfire and estimated number of rounds directed against the strike aircraft. *
(6)
Any other information which may be of value in determining the effectiveness of
the strike.
*Keep
a record
of the number of rounds directed against the FAC aircraft. This will be reported
during your post-flight debriefing.
CONCLUSION
From the preceding discussion, you can see
that the roll of the FAC and scoper during the strike is to operate as an
airborne traffic control team in providing aircraft separation over the target
area. In conjunction, the scoper is identifying the target for the strike pilots
and giving corrections when placing
ordnance on the target. At first you will find that things go pretty fast.
However, after you direct a few strikes the job becomes progressively easier. In
fulfilling the objective of destroying the enemies resupply efforts, keep in
mind that the FAC is the on-scene commander of the strike and is responsible for
providing the battle tactics that will afford maximum safety for the strike
aircraft without detracting from mission accomplishment. The scoper is the man
providing the information and directions that welds the FAC and Strike
aircraft into an efficient war machine capable of destroying the enemies
resupply efforts.
CONTROL OF MORE THAN ONE STRIKE AIRCRAFT
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to outline
some considerations in handling more than one strike aircraft. Many
times,
because of extremely lucrative targets, excessive ground fire, etc, you will be
controlling more than one aircraft in your general strike area. Because of the
danger of mid-air collisions, the FAC is the man responsible for providing instructions
that
will allow the strike aircraft to operate effectively with a minimum risk of a
mid-air collision. The availability of more than one strike aircraft enables you
to provide effective flak suppression while the strikes are in progress.-
This is
extremely important because flak suppression provides the strike aircraft with a
more permissive strike environment and allows them to operate at the peak of
efficiency.
CONTROLLING SEVERAL AIRCRAFT
Clearly, once you get three or more
aircraft in the same general vicinity during the hours of darkness, positive
aircraft separation and control must be maintained by the FAC. Probably the
easiest way of explaining how several aircraft can be handled will
be to illustrate several basic patterns used in handling more than one
strike aircraft.
a.
To reiterate, when controlling only one strike aircraft, the FAC will hold on
the side of the target opposite the strike aircraft’s orbit. Since the strike
aircraft do not remain at the same altitude, the FAC must insure that he has
also provided sufficient lateral separation. (Refer to figure 11).
b.
With two strike aircraft available to attack a target, generally you should
stack one well above the other's working altitude as depicted in figure 12. Once
the first strike aircraft has expended his ordnance then bring him
over
on top of you and clear the second strike aircraft down into the strike pattern.
Once the second strike airplane is established in the strike pattern, then
direct the original strike aircraft to climb up and hold above the strike
pattern. Once again, as the altitude of the two aircraft are being changed, make
sure that adequate lateral separation is provided.
c.
If you have one aircraft striking a target and one providing flak suppression,
then both strike aircraft must be down to their appropriate striking
altitudes and set up in their patterns before you commence striking. One method
of handling this situation is depicted in figure 13. If the guns are removed
from the target area, the diagram in figure 11,
Note:
If the second strike aircraft normally works at a low altitude, it may be
necessary to hold him to the side of the target with the FAC aircraft.
Again, make sure that altitude separation is maintained.
illustrates
a more effective pattern for the flak suppression aircraft. This circular
pattern also allows the flak suppression aircraft to keep the gun positions
constantly in sight
and permits them to roll in on the guns from any point in the pattern.
One note of caution: Make sure that the flak suppression on aircraft knows that
he is not cleared in until the target striking aircraft calls "OFF".
Once the flak suppression aircraft is in, make sure that the target striking
aircraft holds "high and dry" until the strike aircraft is back up to
his altitude. Maintain positive control of each strike aircraft and don't allow
them to go in on the target or guns until their maneuvering airspace is clear.
d.
If you have more than two strike aircraft, then have the additional aircraft
loiter well above the other aircraft you are working and place them in an area
out of range of antiaircraft gunfire.
e.
If you have a choice of ordnance to place on the guns, you will generally be
more successful in using CBU or fire bombs. One advantage of this ordnance is
its large area coverage which compensates for bombing errors inherent in night
operations. However, if the above ordnance is not available, other ordnance can
and should, be used.
f.
One technique that is extremely useful to the strike aircraft is for the FAC to
place a log near the gun positions as soon as he can determine their position.
This gives the strike aircraft a point of reference to orbit over and also a
reference to determine gun positions from.
CONCLUSION
The most important point that can be
stressed in this chapter is that adequate altitude and lateral separation
between aircraft must be maintained. Make sure you know where everyone is
located and make sure that your instructions are followed. If you have the
ordnance available, go after the guns; this will permit a safer environment for
all aircraft operating in the target area.
FAC ORDNANCE
INTRODUCTION
The intent of this chapter is to
familiarize the new night navigator with the FAC ordnance and the techniques and
procedures to be used in expending the ordnance. A simulated FAC situation is
also included to relate how the ordnance, techniques, and procedures could be
used to conduct FAC duties.
1. Aircraft
Ordnance:
a.
Day FAC Ordnance:
(1)
M151 warhead rockets (WP):
(a)
Description: The M151 warhead is an air to ground rocket, launched from the LAU
59 rocket launcher. The warhead is filled with 2.13 pounds of white phosphorus.
A bursting tube containing three ounces of composition B-4 is inserted through
the conter axis of the warhead. Upon impact the bursting tube is detonated by a
fuse causing dispersion of the white phosphorus. The white phosphorus, and a
yellowish wax-like substance that melts at 111 degrees F, ignite spontaneously
when exposed to air. Burning occurs, accompanied by a yellow flame and a large
volume of white smoke.
(b)
The rockets are carried externally in wing mounted rocket pods.
b.
Night FAC Ordnance:
(1)
M151 warhead rockets (WP): For description see la(1)(a) above.
(2)
Mark 6 Mod 3 aircraft smoke and illumination signals -logs:
(a)
Description: The Mark 6 Mod 3 smoke and illumination signal (log) is a ground
mark that burns for 40 to 60 minutes after ignition. The log produces
approximately 650 candlepower of light. The casing is a rectangular piece of wood and weighs 15.5
pounds. The wood casing contains a set of four candles. A lanyard is attached to
the aircraft pylon.
(b)
The logs are carried externally and suspended on pylons attached to each wing.
(c)
Operation: At release the 90-second delay fuse is activated. After 90-seconds,
the fuse ignites a quick match which ignites the first candle. As the first
candle burns, the gaseous pressure generated forces a metal cap and
adhesive away from the candle vent hole, emitting a 10 to 12 inch flame.
As the first candle burns out, it ignites a second candle. No delay is
experienced from the time the first candle has completed burning and the next candle starts
burning. The sequence is repeated until four candles have burned. The log will
function normally in water.
(3)
Mark 24 Flares
(a)
Description: The Mark 24, Mod 3 or 4
flare weighs 27 pounds, is 4.87 inches in diameter, is 36 inches long and
produces 2,000,000 candle power of illumination. The flare may be dropped, free
fall or retarded fall, depending on
settings. When a retarded drop is used the
flare is suspended from a 16-foot parachute. The burning time of the flare is
three minutes.
(b)
Operation: When dropped, a wire
lanyard which connects to the aircraft pylon rack arming solenoid to the flare
fuse train initiator, initiates the fuse train. Generally the flare free-falls
300 feet in the first five seconds, 700 feet in the second five seconds, and
1000 feet for each five seconds thereafter. The flare descends 75 feet each five
seconds after parachute deployment, and before ignition. The flare falls an average of
7.5 feet per second during the burning time. This is due to the changing weight
of the illuminant and the intense heat rising into the canopy. Flares dropped
safe will free fall to the ground and may be used as ground burners (marks).
This technique is not advised because ignition on impact is improbable.
(c)
Timers and Timer Settings: The Mark
24 flare has two timers. The ejection timer setting (parachute deployment)
determines the free fall distance while the ignition timer determines the time
between parachute deployment and flare ignition. Timer settings are made on the
ground and are based on expected operating conditions during flight. The
settings cannot be changed in flight. The timer can be set at five-second
intervals (detents) and range from 5-30 seconds for the ejection timer; 10-30
seconds for the ignition timer. The ignition timer must be in the detent to
insure proper operation. Standard setting for flare drops between 5000 and 6000
feet AGL
are
20-second ejection and a 10-second ignition. Caution: Numerous setting changes
will damage the timers and may degrade flare performance.
2. Uses
of Ordnance on FAC Missions:
a.
Marking: Primarily, FAC ordnance is
used to mark a target, road, or truck park so that strike aircraft have an
identifiable point on the ground from which to initiate a strike. Marking is
accomplished through the use of ground markers (logs), ground or airborne
flares, and rockets. Each method will be discussed in detail in the simulated
FAC situation.
b.
Navigation Aid: FAC ordnance may be
used to determine the aircraft position when it is difficult to identify road
and terrain features visually or with the starlight scope. Care must be
exercised by the aircrew to insure that sufficient ordnance is available to
conduct strikes. Ideally, TACAN and GCI should provide the. required
aircraft positioning, however, when these navigation aids are not available or
erroneous, it may be necessary to release a flare to determine aircraft position
and mark with a log for later reference.
3• Simulated
FAC Situation.
a.
FAC techniques with the Log.
Situation: Trucks have been sighted at point “A” of the road
structure - see figure 15.
(1)
The FAC must consider:
(a)
The availability of fighters and fighter ordnance.
(b)
Available 0-2A ordnance.
(2)
The scoper must determine:
(a)
The direction of truck movement.
(b)
Where and when to conduct the strike, considering:
l
Road structure.
2
Terrain features.
3
Location of AAA.
Suppose that fighters are available and the aircrew has decided to strike the trucks at point B - see figure 15. Point B was selected since the point will allow (1) the time needed to conduct the strike, (2) truck speed considerations, (